‘The Small Big’

(by S. Martin, N. Goldstein & R. Cialdini)

How do you help a busker make eight times as much as he normally would? Piece of cake – just get someone to drop a couple of coins in the hat as soon as the train doors open at the metro station! It’s called ‘Social Proof’ and it’s invisible! When people were asked later, nobody mentioned the ‘generous stranger’ (p. 15)…

In this amazing book, the writers focus on small things that can make a BIG difference. The contents list 53 chapters – each between 4 and 6 pages long. Each one looks at one or more studies and then considers the implications. The emphasis is on those little elements that make us tick. Social proof is one of them. Remember the busker? Instead of telling our students to do something, perhaps we could get a student to ‘model’ the desired behaviour.

The findings are often startling. For instance – how do you reduce no-shows for doctors’ appointments in hospitals by 57%? Easy – peasy: just send people a reminder sms with their first name in it! (p. 35) First names = attention = compliance! So what about us? Do we always use our students’ first names? Even when providing written feedback?

Another question: is it better to give people more or less choice? If you think the right answer is (a), think again! It is true that to get people to agree to do something offering them options is a good idea, but if you want them to actually complete a task they have agreed to do, then the opposite is the case! The big Q is this: ‘Is my problem getting buy-in or follow-through? Excellent! (p. 215)

Now here is a question for you: How many people would you have to ask to fill out a questionnaire before five of them agree? * It is incredible how much we underestimate people’s willingness to help! (p. 165) So – what about ELT? Do we encourage students to ask us for support? What about asking each other? And what about colleagues – how comfortable are we asking each other for help? (Honestly!)

OK – I have saved the best for last. Imagine you are in church. The sermon is over and the customary collection box is being passed around. Only this is an ‘uncollection’! You are actually encouraged to take money!! Then the priest says ‘Our expenses are huge. Please take some money, use it any way you want, and if you wish, you might give some of your earnings back to the church in the future’. Within six months, Reverend Steel got his money back twentyfold!! (p. 163) Q: Could we not do the same at the next IATEFL Convention?  🙂

[ * A: Amazingly, only about 10!]

‘Contagious’

(by J. Berger)

Did you know that a glass ball will bounce higher than a ball of rubber? Or that kangaroos cannot walk backward? (p. 38) You might say that such general knowledge trivia are well, trivial, but Berger does not think so.

Professor Berger has set himself the task of discovering what it is that makes some things go viral – why it is that we share certain things but not others. The facts above come from under the Snapple caps. Snapple introduced them in 2002 – sales soared!

But why? Berger’s answer is that we love to share things (such as weird facts) because that make us look good – it is a kind of ‘Social currency’. He has identified 6 key ingredients to ‘virality’: Social currency / Triggers / Emotion / Public / Practical value / Stories.

There is a great deal here that we can use. Clearly, if students like something enough to share it, that could potentially make excellent teaching material. Strange facts (e.g. the QI books), lateral thinking problems, inspirational quotes can all make great ‘Social currency’.

Some elements such as ‘Stories’ or ‘Emotion’ are obvious, but what about ‘Practical value’? Well, I like to give my teenage students diverse reading material but there is one book (‘Body Language’ by Pease) which they almost never return – they buy it off me! Why? Because it says how you can tell if someone likes you. What would happen if we gave our classes more stuff like this?

‘Triggers’ (ch. 2) is a fascinating concept. The idea is that we are more likely to do something if there are things around us that remind us of it – things that ‘trigger’ a particular thought. Berger and Fitzsimons got students to eat 25% more fruit and veggies by using this trick (p. 72). Could we do the same and get our students to study more?

In the chapter on ‘Public’ Berger mentions an amazing movement (‘Movember’ – p. 138) which since 2007 has helped raise more than $ 174 million for victims of cancer worldwide. How did they do it? Well, they encourage male supporters to grow a moustache for a month! 🙂  People ask them why they have ruined their looks, they reply and the movement gains momentum – brilliant! (Moral 1: Costly, public commitment makes people do things – and the same goes for students! Moral 2: Incongruity works wonders! Could we use this in class perhaps?)

OK – I have saved a little puzzle for the end. Q: Imagine you are about to open your Apple notebook which is in front of you. Is the logo the right way up? It should be, right? Wrong! Now open the laptop. That’s right. It is the right way up – for all the others to see! (Public! – p. 127).

‘The Brain Sell’

(by David Lewis)

Quick Q: What is the McDonald’s slogan? That’s right – ‘I’m loving it!’ Now ask yourself: why is it not ‘You’re loving it?’ After all, this is the company talking, right? But here is the thing: every time you repeat that you persuade yourself! (p. 157)

Self-persuasion is only one of many, many ideas from the world of psychology and advertising that we can find in this book – and apply them in our field as well! If you get your students to talk about the benefits of, say, singing along to songs or listening to BBC News, they may well come to believe themselves. Here are some more:

Pictures (p. 47): if a picture is included alongside a text, the brain processes the info more easily and swiftly. Moral: add pictures to your texts!

Arousal (p. 27): heightened arousal contributes to positive feelings (a spill-over effect). Moral: if we include high-arousal activities in our lessons (e.g. debates – competitions – games like ‘wall dictation’) students will like our lessons more.

Change (p. 205): the brain notices changes; if things are ‘normal’ it runs on auto-pilot. Commercials employ rapid cuts and fast motion to ‘wake us up’. Moral: Short, fast tasks and a change in the nature of activities means that students are more alert and they retain more.

Rationale (p. 158): advertisers routinely translate product features into benefits (‘X has Y, which means Z’). There is a good reason for this. Moral: Explain the rationale behind the activities to students. What is obvious to us, is not necessarily obvious to them.

Technology (p. 39): “most people lack the time or the patience to go up a long learning curve with a new device”. This goes for both students and trainee teachers. Moral: Technology should be a means to an end for us teachers. Keep it simple.

Feedback (p. 50): Findings from Market Research suggests that many people do not know how they feel or what they think about things – or they will give you the ‘right’ answer or the one they think you want. Moral: ‘Don’t ask – can’t tell’. For feedback it is often best to rely on indirect methods.

Negative Feedback (p. 120): How do we handle negative feedback (from students / parents)? Perhaps we could use the Apple ‘Feel – Felt – Found’ technique: ‘I know how you feel, I felt the same in the past… but now I have found…’ Excellent! 🙂  Moral: Notice the ju-jitsu technique – you do not contradict them directly!

‘Miryokuteki Hinshitsu’: What blew my mind away completely however was a distinction between two terms in Japanese: ‘Atarimae Hinshitsu’ vs ‘Miryokuteki Hinshitsu’ (p. 247); the former describes ‘standard service’, the latter what makes you go ‘WoW!’. Our goal should be ‘WoW teaching’. Any day.

Influence

(by Robert Cialdini)

OK – quick Q: you are a shop assistant in a clothes store. You work on commission. A customer walks in and asks for a suit and a pullover. Which do you show them first? (A: at the end!)

‘Influence’ is considered to be The Bible of persuasion, and rightly so! What sets Cialdini apart from most other academics is that he wanted to see how people try to influence in others the real world. He therefore worked for estate agents, politicians, in a restaurant and in advertising. His book analyses his findings – 6 key principles:

• ‘Liking’ (p. 143): The more likeable someone is, the stronger their power of influence. Moral: get your students to like you – they are more likely to learn from you and make a greater effort.
• ‘Authority’ (p. 178): We are more influenced by people we perceive as knowledgeable. Moral: make sure your student know your teaching credentials and give them the rationale behind your methods.
• ‘Social Proof – Consensus’ (p. 98): We are easily swayed by what (many) others do; esp our peers! * Moral: instead of telling students what to do, it is perhaps better to tell them that their friends are doing it!
• ‘Consistency’ (p. 52): We use our earlier behaviour as a guide for what to do next. Moral: if you get your students to adopt a desirable behaviour once or twice (for whatever reason!) they may well go on behaving in the same way!
• ‘Scarcity’ (p. 203): We value things more if they are rare. (In a fantastic study they gave people chocolate chip cookies; in some cases the jar contained 10 – in others only 2. Results: the cookies were rated as tastier in the latter case!! – p. 219). Moral: if someone asks you for private lessons, do not agree immediately; let them think you are busy… 🙂
• ‘Reciprocity’ (p. 19): If someone does us a good turn, we feel the need to reciprocate. Moral: by doing little things for your students you ‘bind’ them and you can ask them to do all kinds of things later. Here is an important discovery – you can ask them to do a lot more! (p. 33)

OK – remember the initial Q? A: you show them the suits first! (p. 13) Why? If you show them the pullovers, they will buy an average-priced one (say E 50) but when you take them to the suits, they will suddenly seem expensive, so they’ll get a cheaper one (say E 150). Yet if you take them to the suits first, they will buy a normal one (say for E 200) and then the pullovers will seem cheap by comparison, so they’ll get one at E 70! Brilliant!  🙂

* Here is a study on Concensus:

Drive

(by Daniel Pink)

Pink sets out to demolish long-held beliefs such as that people are only motivated by extrinsic factors and he does so with gusto. While primarily focusing on the business world, most of the things he says apply directly to education as well.

Pink starts by making a useful distinction between ‘algorithmic’ and ‘heuristic’ tasks (p. 29). The former are ones which you perform by following a series of pre-determined steps, while the latter require a more creative approach. Crucially, the latter are far more motivating!  In our field this would translate into a distinction between, say, the standard transformation exercise and an activity like improvising and recording a monologue. The big Q for us is: what is the ratio between these two types of activities in our classroom?

Later on, Pink draws on Csikszentmihalyi’s insights on ‘Flow’ (p. 115). Csikszentmihalyi’s research showed that most tasks where people achieved ‘Flow’ shared three key elements: a) there were clear goals,  b) there was immediate feedback and  c) the task difficulty level was perfectly pitched – slightly higher than the performer’s current level. The implications for task design here are obvious…

In discussing ‘extrinsic’ vs ‘intrinsic’ motivation, Pink points out that there is often a trade-off; extrinsic factors may work best in the short-term, but in the long run intrinsic motivation is always the winner! (p. 79) Back to ELT, exam classes illustrate this perfectly: granted, both parents and students often clamour for more exam-oriented material as there is always a test round the corner, but in the long run this is disastrous (I have yet to meet students who do CPE tests for fun after getting their certificate…)

Motivation leads to ‘autonomy’ and this is where things get really exciting! On p. 86 we are introduced to the concept of ROWE (‘Results-Only Work Environment’). The idea is simple: your employer does not care how or when you do something, so long as you deliver the goods! Now imagine ROSE instead! Imagine a school where classes are not compulsory, where students are more autonomous and they have to actually generate something as evidence of learning (rather than sit endless tests). This is not a dream; the IB model has taken many steps in that direction…

Then on p. 93 we go one step further still! Atlasian is a software company where once a week employess can do anything they want!! At the end of the day, employees just show what they have come up with. Now, can you imagine a school where once a week you can work on any project you want? Imagine being paid to design your favourite activities, to incorporate novel IT-based task in the syllabus or prepare worksheets for ‘Comedy for ELT’ sketches? Sheer bliss! 🙂

59 Seconds

(by Richard Wiseman)

Knowing how busy we all are, Professor Wiseman set himself the task of summarising a huge amount of accumulated Psychological knowledge in ten short chapters, the summaries of which one can read in 59 seconds flat! Topics covered include ‘Happiness’, ‘Attraction’, ‘Personality’ but also ‘Creativity’, ‘Motivation’ and ‘Persuasion’. Readers are not disappointed.

Looking at ‘Happiness’ first, surely there is nothing wrong with using activities which both help the students’ English and make them happier into the bargain? On p. 20 we are introduced to a rather unusual diary writing task, in which students are asked to think back to great times in their past, reflect of the many things they can be grateful for, and imagine fabulous times in the future. Putting things into perspective and creating a healthy ‘narrative’ about your life has been found to make people considerably happier.

The section on ‘Happiness’ contains some amazing, ready-to-use activities for the ELT classroom. In a task which would warm the hearts of all humanist educators (p. 30), psychologists got groups of children to write nice things about each other and present their classmate with their ‘plateful of praise’. Not only does this contribute to overall feelings of wellbeing, it has the additional advantage of boosting class cohesion.

There are implications for teachers in almost all chapters. In the one on ‘Persuasion’, Wiseman quotes a study in which four charity boxes were placed in large stores (p. 70). Each one bore a different message. The most successful one was ‘Every penny helps’ (62% of all takings!) Researchers thought that people often refrained from giving as they thought their contribution would not make a difference and the message countered this. Could it be that our students feel the same? I believe that if we get them to do little things, this might lead them to try harder later.

‘Liking’ is of course a crucial component of persuasion. On p. 52 Wiseman reminds us of the advice of Dale Carnegie: ‘to increase your popularity, just express a genuine interest in others’ (funnily enough, it does not have to be genuine; if we keep on faking it, the ‘genuineness’ comes later!)  This is a good reminder for us that so-called ‘humanistic’ activities are not just for the learners; students do appreciate it if we find out things about them and we take the trouble to ask them how their sick dog is doing…

And speaking of ‘Liking’, here is an amazing discovery (p. 177) – people bond more readily when they share negative attitudes than when they share positive ones! So next time your students heap insults on the referee who awarded that penalty against the Greek national team, do not forget to chip in with a couple yourself… 🙂

‘The Upside of Irrationality’

(by Dan Ariely)

If anything, Professor Ariely’s second book is even better than the first. Starting with ordinary incidents from real life he proceeds to describe his research and gradually the principle in each chapter crystallises. Then he considers the applications of this in various domains. Here are a few of his discoveries:

‘We overvalue our work’ (p. 83). People who were taught origami and shown how to construct paper cranes or frogs, judged their creations as a lot more valuable than other people did. The implications for teachers are huge: project work of all kinds is a lot better than getting students to do endless exercises – the latter are not something they can take pride in, as they feel their contribution is so small *.

‘Having created something, we want people to see it’ (p. 53). In a fantastic experiment, people told to construct Lego robots lost interest a lot faster when the robots were dismantled as soon as they had completed them than when they were told they would be disassembled later. The moral: although students may get all the linguistic benefits from having their essay/story marked and returned, in terms of motivation it makes a huge difference for us to display it in class.

‘We prefer our own ideas to those of others’ (p. 107). In an amazing study, subjects favoured the ideas they had generated themselves, even when it was in fact the researchers who had given them these ideas in sentences a little while earlier! The moral for us is clear: rather than assigning H/W for instance, why not ask the students themselves what they would think it would be best for the class to do?

‘Short-term emotions can have long-term effects’ (p. 257). Here is how it works: we may be angry with our partner one day; we go to class; we snap at the students and we are unusually strict with them; the lesson is a failure. Later we reflect on the experience. Are we honest with ourselves? Of course not! Instead we try to justify our behaviour telling ourselves that we displayed the necessary firmness. But this ‘narrative’ actually impacts on our future behaviour; next time we are far more likely to be strict again! (A clear warning to all of us there…)

OK – here is my favourite, discovery: ‘habituation: we get used to things’ (p. 157). And now for the amazing, counter-intuitive implication for maximising satisfaction: ‘Pleasant activities – break them up; unpleasant ones – just get them over with’! So tell your partner, it makes sense to stop that massage every 2 min or so and then start again! 🙂

(* in fact by slightly tweaking some activities, we can change this – by following ‘The Egg Theory’! – just watch the following video… )

‘Made to Stick’

(by C. Heath & D. Heath)

I believe this book should be compulsory for any educator. Indeed I will go a step further – I think it may well be more useful to us than any single book on EL Teaching.

The book is about effective and persuasive communication. The Heath brothers start with the Q: ‘Why is it that some ideas are so memorable?’ A: Six key elements [SUCCES]: i) Simplicity (Keep it simple!) ii) Unexpectedness (Surprise = retention!) iii) Concreteness (Avoid abstract or ‘deep’ messages) iv) Credible (Is it believable?) v) Emotions (It is emotion, not reason that makes people act!) vi) Story (The most memorable messages are in the form of a story).

In analysing these elements they explain all kinds of interesting notions, such as ‘the curse of knowledge’ (p. 19). What would happen if you were to tap your finger to the rhythm of a well-known song without actually humming it? Would people be able to guess it? 50% of respondents said ‘Yes’. Incredibly, the actual number was 2.5%!! It is exactly the same when we try to communicate a message – we think others understand, but very often they don’t! (Moral: check that your students have really understood what you have told them or what they have to do. Get feedback as much as possible!)

Heath & Heath go on to stress the importance of ‘curiosity’ (pp. 84 – 87). This is the technique that soap operas, cinema trailers and some gifted presenters use to hook the readers/listeners’ interest. (Moral: Whether it is the contents of a text, or the lesson, it pays not to tell students everything up front. We can excite their curiosity even about mundane things!)

A surprising research finding on p. 89 is of great importance to us; Q: Which is better: consensus-building activities or ones encouraging heated debate? A: The latter! In a controlled study, 18% of students who had done a consensus-type activity chose to watch a short film about the topic, but the number rose to 45% among those who had engaged in a debate! (Moral: use more debates to get students worked up so they are motivated to find out more!)

The two brothers also give us a host of useful tips on how to make our presentations / articles interesting (which is of course of immense value for our Business English students!). Here are a few research-supported findings: a) avoid obscure language (p. 106)  b) including details makes your argument more convincing (p. 139)  c) ‘translate’ statistics down to the human scale (the human brain cannot cope with huge numbers! – p. 144).

Above all however, remember to use stories. Human beings are wired for story. As somebody once so memorably put it: ‘Facts tell – stories sell!’

‘To Sell is Human’

(by Daniel Pink)

Q: What does a book on ‘Selling’ have to do with teachers?!?  A:  A great deal apparently! Pink starts by pointing out two facts: a) the fastest growing fields today are Ed – Med (Education and Medicine – ok, we sort of knew that) and  b) an incredible 40% of our time is spent in non-sales selling!! We sell clients on how great we are and we sell learners on English! That involves a lot of presentation, communication and persuasion skills. Pink can help us with all three of them.

Pink has studied communication extensively and he has lots of interesting things to say on how to write catchy e-mail titles (p. 167), tweets (p. 170) and why using visuals is so important (p. 180). But he also gives us the results of a number of studies on such fascinating topics as…

…Labelling (p. 138): In a Prisoner’s Dilemma type of game, 33% of the participants cooperated when they were told it was called ‘The Wall-Street Game’ but the number doubled when others were told they would be playing ‘The Community Game’. The same effect was found when some students were labelled ‘tidy’ as opposed to a controlled group (Moral: Label you students positively and they will live up to the label!)

…Facilitation (p. 142): In another study, students who had been singled out for their pro-sociality by their peers, were asked to contribute to a food drive for charity. The same was done with others classified as ‘selfish’. The results: 8% of the former but 25% of the latter donated food! Why? The ‘selfish’ students had been given clearer instructions about what to donate and when! (Moral: motivation aside, direct behavioural instructions [‘Do this!’] can go a long way towards ensuring compliance).

…Persuasion Techniques: Here is one: instead of asking students whether they have studied for a test which might trigger ‘Psychological Reactance’ we could ask them ‘How ready are you for the test? Say on a scale from 1 to 10?’ When they answer, we can then follow up with the fantastic ‘Why not a lower number?!?’ This forces them to focus on the positive (what they have done) and shows them what they still need to work on! Excellent!! (p. 213)

What makes the book so readable is that Pink also gives readers many real life examples. Here is my favourite one: On page 213 of the book there is a picture which hangs on the wall of an Italian restaurant. The picture is that of the owner and it reads: ‘If you had anything less than a great experience at il Canale, please call my cell: 703-624-2111’!! Now think: how many DOSs would be prepared to do such a thing? 🙂

‘i Is for Influence’

(by Rob Yeung)

Incredibly, from an informal survey I did, this book does not come up among the top 5 on how to the science of persuasion – but it should! The book’s easy-to-read, humorous, direct style might suggest you can finish it in a day or two, but not if you want to make notes of all the important stuff!

Yeung builds on the work of the great Cialdini, but he adds an extra layer by giving us findings from recent fMRI research for instance and by including a host of short vignettes and examples from the world of business. As for the relevance to us teachers, the examples abound! Here are a few:

In a simple yet elegant study (p. 254) researchers asked random passers-by to take part in a market research. About 75% of them agreed. On another occasion however, the figure went up to 90%! How did this happen? Easily; research assistants simply added the words ‘You are free to accept or refuse’! (Moral: Pointing out to students that certain assignments are optional avoids triggering ‘Psychological Reactance’).

In another experiment (p. 110) students were asked to read a form asking them to volunteer sometime in the future to help with an awareness project in local schools. Once again, there were two groups. Out of those who agreed to come, 17% of the first group turned up, but the number soared to 49% in the second. Why? Well, members of the second group had to tick a box in the form signalling their agreement! (Moral: to ensure consistency, get students to agree to do things [e.g. H/W] and actually write down themselves what they have to do!)

Motivation of course if a major concern for us teachers. In a brilliant study (pp 190 – 192), Business students were given a text to read. Some were told it would help them with their ‘personal development’; others that it would help them with their future career. The results: not only did the ‘intrinsic motivation’ group do better than the second one (by about 24.5%) but they also showed a long-term interest in the topic to a far greater degree than the others! (Moral: we may be tempted to ‘sell’ activities to our BE students using ‘extrinsic’ reasons, but intrinsic motivation is far more effective).

Yeung writes convincingly and unpretentiously. He has a special knack for pointing out the implications of the research and the wide applicability some of the findings have. Here is a final example (p. 68): Do you remember that market survey study? In a similar situation, compliance numbers soared from 40% to a staggering 70%! The reason? Research assistance had been instructed to touch passers-by lightly on the arm… (Moral: to ensure compliance, touch your students gently!)

‘You Are Not So Smart’

(by David McRaney)

McRaney is living proof that the best popularisers of scientific theory are not necessarily researchers themselves. His book is one of the best I have ever read! In 48 bite-size chapters he has managed to elucidate 48 important findings from the fields of Psychology.

‘Priming’ comes first – naturally! The idea is that subtle cues in the environment can affect the way we behave. In a fantastic study (p. 11), some subjects had to work with words related to ‘politeness’ – others with ones relating to ‘rudeness’. Later they were asked to see a researcher who was ‘busy’ talking to someone; the former interrupted him after 8.7 min, the latter after only 5.4! (Moral: The school environment and decoration should be full of cues relating to diligence and cooperation; priming does work!)

‘Procrastination’: In another experiment (p. 45) subjects were asked to choose movies that they would have to watch at some point in the future; most chose at least some serious ones. In another condition however, subjects had to choose movies to watch that very evening; guess what – they went for films of the ‘Legally Blonde’ type… (Moral: We tend to put off doing the things we have to do. To ensure students do not do this, get them to commit well in advance!)

‘The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy’: In a study that all educators should read (p. 234), some teachers were told that certain kids in their class had performed outstandingly in IQ tests (of course this was a lie – the children had been chosen at random). Sure enough, these kids did exceptionally well at H/W, as the teachers lavished more attention to them. (Moral: Expectations often bring about their own fulfilment; alas, this does not only work for students we think are geniuses…)

Now here is a little gem which can make a huge difference in Classroom Management. In another study subjects were asked whether they would donate some time to a cancer drive. One group were simply asked; they did agree but actually only 4% of them turned up. Another group however were asked to volunteer and then asked again if they thought they would show up – almost all of them did! (Moral: When you ask your students to do something, just ask them an additional Q: ‘Do you think you are going to do it?’)

Usefulness aside, the book opens a huge window into our brain and the way it works… You are guaranteed many ‘a-ha!’ moments and not a few chuckles… You will recognise yourself when reading about the ‘Self-serving bias’ and you will recognise 98% of bloggers when reading about ‘The Dunning-Kruger Effect’! (ooops! I didn’t say that! 🙂 )

‘Predictably Irrational’

(by D. Ariely)

MIT Professor Dan Ariely needs no introduction; he is one of the biggest names in the field of Behavioural Economics. Ariely studies the way we think, decide and operate – and in chapter after chapter he shows that we are far from being the rational creatures we think we are!

In one of the amazing studies in the book he shows for instance that the way we ‘frame’ something (p. 41) often determines how others are going to take it (remember Tom Sawyer and how he got his friends to paint that wall? For classroom management purposes, this is crucial; if we introduce activities saying ‘Now, this may hurt a little…’ chances are students are going to feel the pain!)

This leads to the hugely important subject – expectations: quick Q: would you like a beer with a drop of balsamic vinegar in it? (p. 159) A: It depends on whether you know it in advance or not! If you do, chances are you are going to dislike it. Expectations colour perceptions. How many times has this prejudiced us against certain students?

Ariely’s interests range from beverages to education. Here is another Q for you: which students do better in academic work: those who are free to choose their own deadlines, or those where the professor ‘democratically’ decides for everyone? Incredibly, it is the latter! (p. 115) This finding may go against our cherished beliefs, but in fact it ties in very smoothly with notions of ‘ego depletion’ (Baumeister). The very process of deciding exhausts us, with the result that we are both more stressed and produce poorer-quality work.

Ariely writes in the simple, effortless and straightforward style that you find among people with a real command of their subject. Rather than bombarding the reader with studies and facts, he goes through each experiment in detail, ensuring that the reader manages to grasp the key concept in all its fine details. He then goes on to consider the possible applications of the findings in various fields of life – not just work. Yet what I like best about this book is that he also uses examples from his own life – sometimes funny, sometimes poignant.

OK – now here is one last idea from the book: a little ‘conjuring trick’ for shamelessly manipulating students (pp 9 – 10): You give them a choice for H/W: they can read a long article or they can write a short essay. But you really want them to write that essay. Piece of cake – you give them a third option; writing an even longer text! Now, nobody is going to change that, right? Yes, but because the short essay is better than the long one, students also assume it’s preferable to the article too! Brilliant!! 🙂

‘Switch: How to Change Things When Change is Hard’

(by C. Heath & D. Heath)

This book is all about change. Now think of a human being as a rider on an elephant; the rider is our rational side; the elephant is our emotional side. OK – how do you get them to move in a certain direction? Heath & Heath look at three key ideas: a) you have to motivate the elephant – to get it to want to change its course. Logical arguments do not work with the elephant; what you need is an emotional appeal! b) Assuming the elephant is willing, you can then address the rider. The rider likes logical arguments, but tends to overanalyse and suffers from ego-depletion and choice fatigue; s/he needs clear, behavioural instructions (‘Do this!’).  c) An interesting alternative is to also shape the path – so the rider and elephant go down the track because it is easy or because it is the natural thing to do!

How can we use all this? a) Imagine you are addressing a class of low-level Business students; ‘In 6 months’ time, I am going to invite here a group of my NS colleagues for drinks and you are going to be able to mingle without using the L1 at all!’ Now that should motivate them! (PS: If you say this, make sure you actually do it! 🙂 )  b) When setting H/W, telling learners to ‘Study the vocabulary’ is too general; it helps if you specify: i) which words? ii) how should they study them?  iii) how many times?  c) Incredibly, if as part of H/W you ask students to use a new web tool or a site which requires them to register, they may give up! So make sure they do it in class and they get to feel their way around a little before going home (when something is new, the elephant can be easily demotivated).

The writers draw on research from Psychology, Behavioural Economics and related fields to illustrate their ideas and provide a wealth of case studies mostly from the world of corporations and NGOs. Now here is a study I found fascinating (p. 182): researchers asked university students to identify some of their dorm-mates who were either ‘very charitable’ or ‘rather selfish and unlikely to donate to charity’; they then approached the two groups, informed them about a food-drive that was taking place and asked them to donate some. The ‘charitable’ students received a general letter with all the necessary info, but the ‘selfish’ ones got a more detailed one which included a map and a specific request for a can of beans. The results: 8% of the former but an astonishing 25% of the latter made a contribution! There is a lesson for us all there – clear that path!!

‘Flipnosis: The Art of Split-second Persuasion’

(by K. Dutton)

Dutton has looked into a great body of research and case studies and set himself the task of distilling the elements which, if combined judiciously, can help one persuade others instantly. I do not know whether people can master this art, but the principles he comes up with are certainly interesting: he has identified 5 of them (acronym: SPICE!): a) Simplicity: simple messages tend to be more persuasive.   b) Perceived interest: recipients of a message subconsciously ask themselves ‘What’s in it for me?’  c) Incongruity: surprise means people notice the message and noticing is a precondition for persuasion.  d) Confidence: confidence convinces. Period.  e) Empathy: you are more likely to persuade others if you are seen to be (or to have been) in the same boat.

What could all this mean for language teachers? a) Whether you are talking to your students or giving a talk, avoid jargon and metalanguage as far as possible. b) ‘Sell’ your activities to students; don’t tell them a particular task is going to improve their vocabulary – tell them it will enable them to read the instructions for WoW!  c) Instead of telling your students how to pass exams, why not give them tips on how to fail them? Indeed, you could ask them to give a talk on this themselves! d) There is a difference between admitting you do not know something for instance and being diffident; can you walk into a classroom and address your students like Miss Brodie did?  🙂 *

e) Lecturing students is often counterproductive; instead of telling them what to do in order to improve their vocabulary for example, why not share with them the strategies you used when you were learning, say, Spanish?

The book is amazingly fast-paced and I simply love the directness of the style; it is like the writer is talking to you directly! There are lots of reference to personal anecdotes, case studies and research – many of which are taken from the world of business. For instance, did you know that employees work better if they think they control the volume of background music? (p. 199) OK – now here is a story (p. 245): The scene: The London tube; despite the ‘No smoking’ signs in the carriage, someone lights up anyway. An ominous silence descends… Q: How do you get him to put it out – without a confrontation? A: A guy steps up to him and asks him if he too can have a cigarette!! Then one of the passengers cannot take it anymore ‘Have you not seen the signs?’ he growls. ‘Oh, I’m sorry’ the requester says, pretending surprise. Then he turns to the first guy ‘Perhaps WE’d better put them out…’ (Remember point (e)?!? – pure ju-jitsu!!)*

‘Yes! 50 Lessons from the Science of Persuasion’

(by N. J. Goldstein, S. J. Martin & R. B. Cialdini)

In terms of value for money, practicality, directness and ease of assimilation of the material this is the best book around in my opinion. It consists of 50 mini articles – each one about 2-3 pages long. Each one is based on one or more scientific studies and there are references at the back of the book. Following the description of the study and a brief discussion of the principle involved, the writers have considered possible applications – in the vast majority of cases in the world of business. The style of writing is clear, jargon-free and humorous.

In terms of the ideas, it is a true treasure-trove! Many of them will be familiar to people with some experience in the field – others far less so! For instance, did you know that if you are going through a job interview, it may be a good idea to start with one of your shortcomings? (p. 102) Or that if that if it is hard for people to imagine using something they are far more likely to ignore it, regardless of how good it is? (the ‘Fluency’ principle – p. 148)  Or that one of the best way to get people to like us is not to do things for them but to get them to do things for us? (‘The Franklin Principle’ – p. 72)

There are simply dozens of ‘take away’ messages for us teachers. Clearly, that hint about interviews might come in handy to us too and the fluency principle is vital whether we are presenting a new strategy or a new Web tool – if something looks too complicated students will shun it. The Franklin principle has immediate applications everywhere; to paraphrase JFK ‘Ask not what you can do for your students; ask what your students can do for YOU!’ 🙂  Incredibly, they are going to like both you and the lesson more!

And that’s not all: on p. 26 we learn that giving students too much choice can backfire! (Moral: whether it is Readers or Essay Topics less is often more!) The ‘consistency’ principle (p. 56) suggests that to get students to do something ‘big’ it pays to start small; language benefits aside, when a student listens to the BBC News for 5 min or brings a single joke in class, they come to see themselves in a different light! And here is my favourite principle: ‘Labelling’ (p. 59) Simply telling people at random that they are above average in civic-mindedness made them more likely to vote! But what about learners? Amazingly telling children that they seemed to care about their handwriting made them practice – even when nobody was present! (p. 60) Excellent!